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<title>Overview of Greek Syntax</title>
<author>Jeffrey A. Rydberg-Cox</author>
<sponsor>Perseus Project, Tufts University</sponsor>
<principal>Gregory Crane</principal>
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<resp>Prepared under the supervision of</resp>
<name>Lisa Cerrato</name>
<name>William Merrill</name>
<name>Elli Mylonas</name>
<name>David Smith</name>
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<respStmt><name>Anne Mahoney</name><resp>ed.</resp></respStmt>
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$Log: gksyn.xml,v $
Revision 1.1 2009-12-08 20:46:34 rsingh04
moved more xml files around based on copyright status. renamed terence files to follow the abbreviations and split up minora_lat.xml into separate files
Revision 1.5 2009/08/25 19:51:33 rsingh04
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Revision 1.4 2009/07/29 18:45:30 student
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Revision 1.3 2009/06/19 17:14:26 rsingh04
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Converted to XML
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Revision 1.2 2000/11/12 18:43:56 amahoney
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Revision 1.1 2000/11/07 19:25:51 amahoney
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<div1 id="og.1" type="chapter" n="1" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns</head>
<div2 id="og.1.nom" type="form" n="nom" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Nominative</head>
<p>Used as the subject, predicate object, or independently in titles.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Subject:</hi> Serves as the subject of a finite verb. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 938" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 938-939</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tau=ta oi( ai(retoi\ a)gge/llousi toi=s stratiw/tais</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.2.3" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.2.3</bibl></cit>; <gloss>The delegates report these things to the soldiers</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Predicate:</hi> The predicate object of verbs such as <foreign lang="greek">ei)mi/</foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">gi/gnomai</foreign> <bibl n="Smyth grammar 939" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 939</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">*kle/arxos fuga\s h)=n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.1.9" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1. 1. 9</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Clearchus was an exile</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Independent:</hi> Standing independently describing titles or names. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 940" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 940-942</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">prosei/lhfe th\n tw=n ponhrw=n koinh\n e)pwnumi/an sukofa/nths</quote> <bibl n="Aeschin. 2.99" default="NO" valid="yes">Aeschin. 2.99</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he -- the syncophant -- received the common appellation of the vile</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.1.gen" type="form" n="gen" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Genitive</head>
<p>1. limits the meaning of a noun</p>
<p>2. expresses the idea of source or separation.</p>
<p>These relationships can be expressed by the English prepositions <emph>of</emph> or <emph>from.</emph>
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Possession:</hi> Denotes possession or ownership <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1297" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1297-1302</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o( *ku/rou sto/los</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.2.5" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.2.5</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the expedition of Cyrus</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Partitive:</hi> Denotes the general class to which a specific noun belongs. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1306" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1306-1319</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">oi( a)/poroi tw=n politw=n</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 18.104" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 18.104</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the needy among the citizens</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Quality:</hi> Denotes the quality of a person or thing. Used mainly as a predicate. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1320" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1320-1321</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">oi( de/ tines th=s au)th=s gnw/mhs o)li/goi kate/fugon</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.70" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.70</bibl></cit>; <gloss>but some few of the same opinion fled</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Explanation:</hi> Denotes the specific class to which a general noun belongs. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1322" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1322</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/ellai pantoi/wn a)ne/mwn</quote> <bibl n="Hom. Od. 5.292" default="NO" valid="yes">Hom. Od. 5.292</bibl></cit>; <gloss>blasts of wind of every sort</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Material:</hi> Denotes the composition or contents of a noun. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1323" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1323-1324</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e(cako/sia ta/lanta fo/rou</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 2.13" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 2.13</bibl></cit>; <gloss>six hundred talents in taxes</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Measure:</hi> Denotes the extent in space or time of a noun. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1325" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1325-1327</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o)ktw\ stadi/wn tei=xos</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 7.2" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 7.2</bibl></cit>; <gloss>a wall eight stades long</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Subjective:</hi> Denotes the subject of a verbal adjective expressed by a noun, usually with an active sense. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1330" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1330</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tw=n barba/rwn fo/bos</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.2.17" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.2.17</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the fear of the barbarians</gloss> (which they feel: <foreign lang="greek">oi( ba/rbaroi fobou=ntai</foreign>)
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Objective:</hi> Denotes the object of a verbal action expressed by a noun, usually with a passive sense. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1331" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1331-1335</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">fo/bos tw=n *ei(lw/twn</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.54" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.54</bibl></cit> <gloss>the fear of the Helots</gloss> (felt towards them: <foreign lang="greek">fobou=ntai tou\s *ei(/lwtas</foreign>）</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Price or Value:</hi> Denotes the price or value of an object <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1336" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1336-1337</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">xili/wn draxmw=n di/khn feu/gw</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 55.25" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 55.25</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I am defendant in an action involving a thousand drachma</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">With Certain Verbs:</hi> The genitive is used as the object verbs that denote sharing, touching, beginning, aiming at, obtaining, smelling, remembering, hearing, perceiving, filing, ruling, differing, commanding, etc. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1341" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1341-1371</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">th=s qala/tths e)kra/tei</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Menex. 239e" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Menex. 239e</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he was master of the sea</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Charge:</hi> Denotes the crime with verbs of charging, summoning, and convicting. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1375" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1375-1379</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)me\ o( *me/lhtos a)sebei/as e)gra/yato</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Euthyph. 5c" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Euthyph. 5c</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Meletus prosecuted me for impiety</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Separation:</hi> The genitive expresses the ideas of separation with verbs denoting to cease, be apart from, want, lack, etc. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1392" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1392-1400</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">lh/gein tw=n po/nwn</quote> <bibl n="Isoc. 1.14" default="NO" valid="yes">Isoc. 1.14</bibl></cit>; <gloss>to cease from toil</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Comparison:</hi> Denotes the person or thing being compared when used with comparative adjectives, comparative adverbs or verbs expressing the idea of comparison. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1401" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1401-1404</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/rxwn a)gaqo\s ou)de\n diafe/rei patro\s a)gaqou=</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 8.1.1" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 8.1.1</bibl></cit>; <gloss>a good ruler differs in no respect from a good father</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Cause:</hi> The genitive expresses cause with verbs denoting wonder, admiration, anger, etc. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1405" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1405-1407</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">to\n ce/non di/kaion ai)ne/sai proqumi/as</quote> <bibl n="Eur. IA 1371" default="NO" valid="yes">Eur. IA 1371</bibl></cit>; <gloss>it is right to praise the stranger for his zeal</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Source:</hi> The genitive expresses the idea of source. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1410" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1410-1411</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">pi/qwn h)fu/sseto oi)=nos</quote> <bibl n="Hom. Od. 23.305" default="NO" valid="yes">Hom. Od. 23.305</bibl></cit>; <gloss>wine was broached from the casks</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Time or Place within which:</hi> The genitive denotes the time or place within which an event happens. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1444" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1444-1449</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">w)/|xeto th=s nukto/s</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 7.2.17" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 7.2.17</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he departed during the night</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Agency:</hi> The genitive with <foreign lang="greek">u(po/</foreign> expresses the agent of a passive verb. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1491" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1491</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">perierrei=to d' au(/th u(po\ tou= *ma/ska ku/klw|</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.5.4" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.5.4</bibl></cit>; <gloss>And this was encircled by the Mascas</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Purpose:</hi> The genitive articular infinitive can express purpose. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1408" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1408-1409</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tou= mh\ ta\ di/kaia poiei=n</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 18.107" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 18.107</bibl></cit>; <gloss>in order not to do what was just</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.1.dat" type="form" n="dat" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Dative</head>
<p>1. Used as the indirect object.</p>
<p>2. Expresses how or with what something is done.</p>
<p>3. Expresses relationships of place where and time when.</p>
<p>These relationships can be expressed by the English prepositions <emph>to</emph> or <emph>for</emph>, <emph>with</emph> or <emph>by</emph>, and <emph>in</emph> or <emph>at</emph>.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Indirect Object:</hi> Used as the indirect object of a verb. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1469" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1469-1470</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">*ku=ros di/dwsin au)tw=| e(\c mhnw=n misqo/n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.1.10" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.1.10</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Cyrus gives pay for six months to him</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Possessor:</hi> Denotes possession with verbs such as <foreign lang="greek">gi/gnomai</foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">ei)mi/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1476" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1476-1480</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/llois me\n xrh/mata/ e)sti, h(mi=n de\ cu/mmaxoi a)gaqoi/</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 1.86" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 1.86</bibl></cit>; <gloss>others have riches, we have good allies</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Advantage or Disadvantage:</hi> Describes the person or thing for (or against) whom an action is done. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1481" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1481-1486</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/llw| o( toiou=tos ploutei=, kai\ ou)x e(autw=|</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Menex. 246e" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Menex. 246e</bibl></cit>; <gloss>such a man is rich for another, and not for himself</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Ethical:</hi> A dative personal pronoun denotes the interest of the speaker or the one being spoken to in the action of a statement. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1486" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1486-1487</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">toiou=to u(mi=n e)sti h( turanni/s</quote> <bibl n="Hdt. 5.92" default="NO" valid="yes">Hdt. 5.92</bibl></cit>; <gloss>such a thing, you know, is despotism</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Agent:</hi> Denotes agency with either verbal adjectives ending in <foreign lang="greek">-te/os</foreign> or passive verbs in the perfect or pluperfect tenses. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1488" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1488-1494</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tosau=ta/ moi ei)rh/sqw</quote> <bibl n="Lys. 24.4" default="NO" valid="yes">Lys. 24.4</bibl></cit>; <gloss>let so much have been said by me</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Attendant Circumstance:</hi> Denotes the manner in which an action takes place. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1527" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1527</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">pollh=| boh=| prose/keinto</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 4.127" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 4.127</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they attacked with loud shouts</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Respect:</hi> Denotes the respect or attendant circumstance in which an action is true. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1516" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1516</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)sqenh\s tw=| sw/mati</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 21.165" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 21.165</bibl></cit>; <gloss>weak in body</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Means:</hi> Denotes the means with which something is done. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1507" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1507-1511</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)zhmi/wsan xrh/masin</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 2.65" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 2.65</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they punished him by a fine</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Degree of Difference:</hi> Denotes the degree of difference with words containing an idea of comparison. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1513" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1513-1515</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ou) pollai=s h(me/rais u(/steron h)=lqen</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Hell. 1.1.1" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Hell. 1.1.1</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he arrived not many days later</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Accompaniment:</hi> Denotes accompaniment, frequently with the preposition <foreign lang="greek">su/n</foreign>. Most common in military situations. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1524" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1524-1525</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)kolouqei=n tw=| h(goume/nw|</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Rep. 474c" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Rep. 474c</bibl></cit>; <gloss>to follow the leader</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Time When:</hi> Denotes the point of time when an action takes place. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1540" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1540-1543</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tau/thn me\n th\n h(me/ran au)tou= e)/meinan, th=| de\ u(sterai/a| ktl</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Hell. 1.1.14" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Hell. 1.1.14-14</bibl></cit>; . <gloss>throughout that day they waited there, but on the day following</gloss>, etc.
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Place Where:</hi> Denotes the place where an action takes place. Most common in poetry. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1530" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1530-1538</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">gh=| e)/keito</quote> <bibl n="Soph. OT 1266" default="NO" valid="yes">Soph. OT 1266</bibl></cit>; <gloss>she lay on the ground</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">With compound verbs:</hi> The dative is used as the direct object of many verbs compounded with the prepositions <foreign lang="greek">e)n, su/n, </foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">e)pi/</foreign> and less frequently with the prepositions <foreign lang="greek">pro/s, para/, peri/, </foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">u(po/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1544" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1544-1550</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)lpi/das e)mpoiei=n a)nqrw/pois</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 1.6.19" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 1.6.19</bibl></cit>; <gloss>to create expectations in men</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.1.acc" type="form" n="acc" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Accusative</head>
<p>Used as the direct object of a verb, or to communicate relationships of motion, space, or time.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Direct Object:</hi> Used as the direct object of a transitive verb. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1553" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1553-1555</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">to\n a)/ndra o(rw=</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.8.26" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.8.26</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I see the man</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Cognate:</hi> Repeats the sense of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1563" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1563-1577</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">th\n e)n *salami=ni naumaxi/an naumaxh/santes</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 59.97" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 59.97</bibl></cit>; <gloss>victorious in the sea-fight at Salamis</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Subject of the Infinitive:</hi> Used as the subject of an infinitive. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1972" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1972-1981</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">to\n ga\r kalo\n ka)gaqo\n a)/ndra eu)dai/mona ei)=nai/ fhmi</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Gorg. 470e" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Gorg. 470e</bibl></cit>; <gloss>for I maintain that the noble and good man is happy</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specification or Respect:</hi> Limits the scope of a verb or an adjective. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1600" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1600-1605</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tuflo\s ta/ t' w)=ta to/n te nou=n ta/ t' o)/mmat' ei)=</quote> <bibl n="Soph. OT 371" default="NO" valid="yes">Soph. OT 371</bibl></cit>; <gloss>you are blind in ears, and mind, and eyes</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Extent of Space:</hi> Describes the space over which an action takes place. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1581" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1581</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/gein （stratia\n） stena\s o(dou/s</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 1.6.43" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 1.6.43</bibl></cit> <gloss>to lead an army over narrow roads</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Extent of Time:</hi> Describes the length of time of an action. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1582" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1582-1585</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">cummaxi/an e)poih/santo e(kato\n e)/th</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.114" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.114</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they made an alliance for a hundred years</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">End of Motion:</hi> Describes the motion towards something with prepositions. In poetry, the preposition may be omitted. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1588" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1588-1589</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">pe/myome/n nin *(ella/da</quote> <bibl n="Eur. Tro. 883" default="NO" valid="yes">Eur. Tro. 883</bibl></cit>; <gloss>we will convey her to Greece</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Adverbial:</hi> The accusative may serve as an adverb. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1606" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1606-1611</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/plee pro/fasin e)p' *(ellhspo/ntou</quote> <bibl n="Hdt. 5.33" default="NO" valid="yes">Hdt. 5.33</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he sailed professedly for the Hellespont</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Oaths:</hi> Used with verbs of swearing and the particles <foreign lang="greek">nh/</foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">ma/</foreign> <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1596" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1596</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o)mnu/w u(mi=n qeou\s pa/ntas kai\ pa/sas</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 6.1.31" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 6.1.31</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I swear to you by all the gods and goddesses.</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Double Accusative:</hi> Many verbs take two accusatives, one of the person affected, the other of the thing. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1619" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1619-1635</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o( po/lemos a)ei/mnhston paidei/an au)tou\s e)pai/deuse</quote> <bibl n="Aeschin. 3.148" default="NO" valid="yes">Aeschin. 3.148</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the war taught them a lesson they will hold in everlasting remembrance</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Predicate Accusative:</hi> Verbs of naming, appointing, considering take a second accusative as a predicate of the direct object. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1613" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1613-1618</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">strathgo\n au)to\n a)pe/deice</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.1.2" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.1.2</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he appointed him general</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.1.voc" type="form" n="voc" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Vocative</head>
<p>Used for exclamations and emphatic address.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Exclamations:</hi> The vocative is used in exclamations <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1283" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1283-1288</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">w)= *zeu= kai\ qeoi/</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Prot. 310d" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Prot. 310d</bibl></cit>; <gloss>oh Zeus and ye gods</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Emphatic address:</hi> The vocative is used for emphatic addresses. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1283" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1283-1288</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)kou/eis <hi rend="bold">*ai)sxi/nh</hi>;</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 18.121" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 18.121</bibl></cit> <gloss>do you hear, <emph>Aeschines</emph>?</gloss> </p></item>
</list>
</p></div2></div1>
<div1 id="og.2" type="chapter" n="2" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Verbs: Tense</head>
<div2 id="og.2.pres" type="form" n="pres" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Present</head>
<p>The present tense denotes an action in the present time with continuing aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Present:</hi> The present denotes an action in progress at the present time. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1875" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1875-1876</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)lhqh= le/gw</quote> <bibl n="Lys. 13.72" default="NO" valid="yes">Lys. 13.72</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I am telling the truth</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Gnomic Present:</hi> The present can denote a general truth. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1877" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1877</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/gei de\ pro\s fw=s th\n a)lh/qeian xro/nos</quote> <bibl default="NO">Men. <title>Sent.</title> 11</bibl></cit> <gloss>time brings the truth to light</gloss> </p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Historical Present:</hi> The present may be used in narrative to present a more vivid picture of an action. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1883" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1883-1884</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o( de\ *qemistoklh=s <emph>feu/gei</emph> e)s *ke/rkuran . . . <emph>diakomi/zetai</emph> e)s th\n h)/peiron</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 1.136" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 1.136</bibl></cit> <gloss>Themistocles <emph>fled</emph> (flees) to Corcyra . . . <emph>was</emph> (is) transported to the mainland</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present Simple Conditions:</hi> The present or perfect indicative stands in the protasis of present simple conditions. The present or perfect indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) ou)=n bou/lesqe, e)/cestin u(mi=n h(ma=s labei=n cumma/xous</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 5.4.6" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 5.4.6</bibl></cit>; <gloss>If you wish, you can take us as allies</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present General Conditions:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">e)a/n</foreign> stands in the protasis of present general conditions. The present indicative stands in the apodosis <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2337" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2337-2339</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)dikou=nta, h)\n la/bh|s, kola/zeis;</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 3.1.11" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 3.1.11</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Do you punish a wrong-doer if you catch him?</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.2.perf" type="form" n="perf" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Perfect</head>
<p>The perfect denotes present time and completed aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Perfect:</hi> The perfect denotes a completed action in the present time. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1945" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1945</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ta\s po/leis au)tw=n parh/|rhtai</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 9.26" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 9.26</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he has taken away (and still holds) their cities</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Gnomic Perfect:</hi> The perfect can denote a general truth. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1948" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1948</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">h( a)taci/a pollou\s h)/dh a)polw/leken</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 3.1.38" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 3.1.38</bibl></cit>; <gloss>lack of discipline already has been the ruin of many</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present Simple Conditions:</hi> The present or perfect indicative stands in the protasis of present simple conditions. The present or perfect indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) ou)=n bou/lesqe, e)/cestin u(mi=n h(ma=s labei=n cumma/xous</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 5.4.6" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 5.4.6</bibl></cit>; <gloss>If you wish, you can take us as allies</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.2.plup" type="form" n="plup" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Pluperfect</head>
<p>The pluperfect expresses past time and completed aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Pluperfect:</hi> The pluperfect expresses a completed action in past time. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1952" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1952</bibl></p>
<p><foreign lang="greek">e)bebouleu/mhn</foreign> <gloss>I had (was) resolved</gloss></p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Simple Conditions:</hi> The imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect indicative stands in the protasis and apodosis of past simple conditions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei)/ te/ ti a)/llo . . . e)ge/neto e)piki/ndunon toi=s *(/ellhsi, pa/ntwn . . . mete/sxomen</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.54" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.54</bibl></cit>; <gloss>and if any other danger befell the Greeks, we took our share in all</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.2.imperf" type="form" n="imperf" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Imperfect</head>
<p>The imperfect expresses past time and continuing aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Imperfect:</hi> The imperfect denotes an action that is continuing in a past time or is still incomplete in the present. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1889" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1889-1892</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">die/fqeiran *)aqhnai/wn pi/nte kai\ ei)/kosi oi(\ cunepoliorkou=nto</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.68" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.68</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they put to death twenty-five of the Athenians who were besieged</gloss> (i.e. from the beginning to the end of the siege)
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Conative Imperfect:</hi> The imperfect can denote an action that was attempted in a past time. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1895" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1895</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">*qhbai=oi katedoulou=nt' au)tou/s</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 8.74" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 8.74</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the Thebans tried to enslave them</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Iterative Imperfect:</hi> The imperfect can denote a repeated action in past time when accompanied by <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1893" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1893-1894</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)pequ/mei a)/n tis e)/ti plei/w au)tou= a)kou/ein</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 1.4.3" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 1.4.3</bibl></cit>; <gloss>people would (used to) desire to hear still more from him</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present Contrafactual Conditions:</hi> The imperfect indicative stands in the protasis of present contrafactual conditions. The imperfect indicative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2302" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2302-2312</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) ga\r e)kh/dou, h(=kes a)\n fe/rwn plh/rh to\n misqo\n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 7.5.5" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 7.5.5</bibl></cit>; <gloss>If you were troubled, you would have come with full pay</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Contrafactual Condition:</hi> The aorist or imperfect indicative stands in the protasis of past contrafactual conditions. The aorist or imperfect indicative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2302" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2302-2312</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ou)k a)\n e)poi/hsen *)agasi/as tau=ta, ei) mh\ e)gw\ au)to\n e)ke/leusa</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 6.6.15" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 6.6.15</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Agasias would not have done this, if I had not commanded him</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Simple Conditions:</hi> The imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect indicative stands in the protasis and apodosis of past simple conditions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei)/ te/ ti a)/llo . . . e)ge/neto e)piki/ndunon toi=s *(/ellhsi, pa/ntwn . . . mete/sxomen</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.54" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.54</bibl></cit>; <gloss>and if any other danger befell the Greeks, we took our share in all</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past General Conditions:</hi> The optative with <foreign lang="greek">ei)</foreign> stands in the protasis of past general conditions. The imperfect indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2340" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2340-2341</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) de/ tis kai\ a)ntei/poi, eu)qu\s . . . e)teqnh/kei</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 8.66" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 8.66</bibl></cit>; <gloss>but if any one even made an objection, he was promptly put to death</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.2.aor" type="form" n="aor" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Aorist</head>
<p>The aorist expresses past time and simple aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Aorist:</hi> The aorist denotes a simple action in the past. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1923" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1923-1930</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)ni/khsan oi( *kerkurai=oi kai\ nau=s pe/nte kai\ de/ka die/fqeiran</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 1.29" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 1.29</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the Corcyraeans were victorious and destroyed fifteen ships</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Gnomic Aorist:</hi> The aorist can express a general truth and, in this case, should be translated as a present. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1931" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1931-1932</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ka/llos me\n ga\r h)\ xro/nos a)nh/lwsen h)\ no/sos e)ma/rane</quote> <bibl n="Isoc. 1.6" default="NO" valid="yes">Isoc. 1.6</bibl></cit>; <gloss>for beauty is either wasted by time or withered by disease</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Iterative Aorist:</hi> The aorist can indicate repeated action in past time when accompanied by <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1933" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1933</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek"><emph>ei)=pen</emph> a)/n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 7.1.14" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 7.1.14</bibl></cit> <gloss>he used to say</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Contrafactual Condition:</hi> The aorist or imperfect indicative stands in the protasis of past contrafactual conditions. The aorist or imperfect indicative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2302" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2302-2312</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ou)k a)\n e)poi/hsen *)agasi/as tau=ta, ei) mh\ e)gw\ au)to\n e)ke/leusa</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 6.6.15" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 6.6.15</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Agasias would not have done this, if I had not commanded him</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Simple Conditions:</hi> The imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect indicative stands in the protasis and apodosis of past simple conditions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei)/ te/ ti a)/llo . . . e)ge/neto e)piki/ndunon toi=s *(/ellhsi, pa/ntwn . . . mete/sxomen</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.54" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.54</bibl></cit>; <gloss>and if any other danger befell the Greeks, we took our share in all</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.2.fut" type="form" n="fut" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Future</head>
<p>The future expresses future time with either simple or continuing aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Future:</hi> The future denotes an action that will take place at a future time. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1910" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1910-1913</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">lh/yetai misqo\n ta/lanton</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 2.2.20" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.2.20</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he shall receive a talent as his reward</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Jussive Future:</hi> The future can denote a command, much like the imperative. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1917" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1917-1922</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">w(\s ou)=n poih/sete</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Prot. 338a" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Prot. 338a</bibl></cit>; <gloss>you will do thus</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Gnomic Future:</hi> The future can express a general truth and, in this case, should be translated as a present. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1914" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1914</bibl></p>
<p><cit><bibl n="Plat. Rep. 603e" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Rep. 603e</bibl> <quote lang="greek">a)nh\r e)pieikh\s ui(o\n a)pole/sas r(a=|sta <emph>oi)/sei</emph> tw=n a)/llwn</quote></cit> <gloss>a reasonable man, if he loses a son, <emph>will</emph> (is expected to) <emph>bear</emph> it more easily than other men</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Future More Vivid Conditions:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">e)a/n</foreign> stands in the protasis of future more vivid conditions. The future indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2323" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2323-2327</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ti/ e)/stai toi=s stratiw/tais, e)a\n au)tw=| tau=ta xari/swntai</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 2.1.10" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.1.10</bibl></cit>; <gloss>What will the soldiers have, if they oblige him in this?</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Future Most Vivid Conditions:</hi> The future indicative stands in the protasis and apodosis of future most vivid conditions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2328" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2328</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)poktenei=s ga/r, ei)/ me gh=s e)/cw balei=s</quote> <bibl n="Eur. Phoen. 1621" default="NO" valid="yes">Eur. Phoen. 1621</bibl></cit>; <gloss>for you will slay me if you cast me out of the land</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.2.futperf" type="form" n="futperf" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Future Perfect</head>
<p>The future perfect expresses future time and completed aspect.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Future Perfect:</hi> The future perfect denotes a completed action in some future time. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1955" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1955-1958</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">h( qu/ra keklh/setai</quote> <bibl n="Aristoph. Lys. 1071" default="NO" valid="yes">Aristoph. Lys. 1071</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the door will be kept shut</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2></div1>
<div1 id="og.3" type="chapter" n="3" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Verbs: Voice</head>
<div2 id="og.3.act" type="form" n="act" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Active Voice</head>
<p>The active voice denotes that the subject is the agent of an action.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Transitive:</hi> A transitive verb expresses an immediate impact on its object. The object is defined the accusative. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1705" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1705-1706</bibl>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Intransitive:</hi> An intransitive verb has an indirect impact on an object. The object can be 1) the subject, 2) defined by an oblique case, or 3) defined by a prepositional phrase. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1707" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1707-1710</bibl></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.3.mid" type="form" n="mid" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Middle Voice</head>
<p>The middle voice denotes that the subject is both an agent of an action and somehow concerned with the action.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Direct Reflexive:</hi> A direct reflexive middle denotes the idea of <emph>self</emph> as a direct object. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1717" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1717-1718</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">dei/sas mh/ e)f' a(rpagh\n tra/poito to\ stra/teuma</quote> <bibl n="xen. anab. 7.1.18" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 7.1.18</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Fearing lest the army might betake itself to plunder.</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Indirect Reflexive:</hi> An indirect reflexive middle denotes the idea of <emph>self</emph> as an indirect object. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1719" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1719-1722</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">me/nein te au)to\n e)ke/leue kai\ su/ndeipnon e)poih/sato</quote> <bibl n="xen. anab. 2.5.27" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.5.27</bibl></cit>; <gloss>He invited him to remain and made him his guest.</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.3.pass" type="form" n="pass" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Passive Voice</head>
<p>The passive voice denotes that the subject is acted upon.
</p></div2></div1>
<div1 id="og.4" type="chapter" n="4" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Verbs: Mood</head>
<div2 id="og.4.ind" type="form" n="ind" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Indicative</head>
<p>The indicative mood expresses simple statements or questions of fact.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Specific Indicative:</hi> The Indicative mood is used to express a fact or to ask a question anticipating a fact. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1770" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1770-1773</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)ntau=q' e)/meinen h(me/ras pe/nte</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.2.11" default="NO" valid="yes"> Xen. Anab. 1.2.11</bibl></cit>; <gloss>He remained there for five days</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Purpose or Final Clauses:</hi> The future indicative can be used in place of the subjunctive or optative in purpose clauses (Most common in poetry). <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2203" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2203</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ou)de\ di' e(\n a)/llo tre/fontai h)\ o(/pws maxou=ntai</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 2.1.21" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 2.1.21</bibl></cit>; <gloss>nor are they maintained for any other single purpose than for fighting</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Object Clauses of Effort:</hi> The future indicative can be used in object clauses introduced by <foreign lang="greek">o(/pws</foreign> or <foreign lang="greek">o(/pws mh/</foreign> following verbs that signify attempting or planning. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2209" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2209-2211</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/prasson o(/pws tis boh/qeia h(/cei</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.4" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.4</bibl></cit> <gloss>they were managing</gloss> (this, that) <gloss>how some reinforcements should come</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Fear Clauses:</hi> The future indicative can sometimes be used in place of the subjunctive in object clauses introduced by <foreign lang="greek">o(/pws mh/</foreign> following verbs that signify fear of something in the future. The indicative is also used in clauses that signify fear of something in the present or the past. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2231" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2231</bibl></p>
<p><cit><bibl n="Dem. 9.75" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 9.75</bibl> <quote lang="greek">de/doika o(/pws mh\ . . . a)na/gkh genh/setai <note anchored="yes" place="inline" resp="JRC">（<foreign lang="la">v. l.</foreign> ge/nhtai）</note></quote></cit> <gloss>I fear lest a necessity may arise</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Causal Clauses:</hi> The indicative is used in causal clauses expressing a factual cause after both primary and secondary tenses. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">ou)</foreign>. Causal clauses are introduced by <foreign lang="greek">o(/ti, dio/ti, dio/per, e)pei/, e)peidh/, o(/te, o(po/te</foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">w(s</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2240" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2240-2242</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)pei\ de\ u(mei=s ou) bou/lesqe sumporeu/esqai, a)na/gkh dh/ moi h)\ u(ma=s prodo/nta th=| *ku/rou fili/a| xrh=sqai ktl.</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.3.5" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.3.5</bibl></cit>; <gloss>but since you do not wish to continue the march with me</gloss>, <gloss>I must either retain the friendship of Cyrus by renouncing you</gloss>, etc.
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Consecutive or Result Clauses:</hi> A result clause introduced by <foreign lang="greek">w(/ste</foreign> expressing the idea of an actual result is expressed by the indicative. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2274" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2274-2278</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ou(/tw dia/keimai u(f' u(mw=n w(ste ou)de\ dei=pnon e)/xw e)n th=| e)mautou= xw/ra|</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Hell. 4.1.33" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Hell. 4.1.33</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I am treated by you in such a manner that I cannot even sup in my own country</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Temporal Clauses:</hi> The indicative is used in temporal clauses to denote a factual occurrence on a definite occasion in the present or the past. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">ou)</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2395" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2395-2397</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o(/te tau=ta h)=n, sxedo\n me/sai h)=san nu/ktes</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 3.1.33" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 3.1.33</bibl></cit>; <gloss>it was about midnight when this was taking place</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Indirect Discourse:</hi> The indicative is used in indirect discourse introduced by <foreign lang="greek">o(/ti</foreign> or <foreign lang="greek">w(s</foreign> following a verb in primary sequence. The indicative may also be retained following a verb in secondary sequence. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2614" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2614-2615</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">le/gei d' w(s u(bristh/s ei)mi</quote> <bibl n="Lys. 24.15" default="NO" valid="yes">Lys. 24.15</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he says that I am an insolent person</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present Simple Conditions:</hi> The present or perfect indicative stands in the protasis of present simple conditions. The present or perfect indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) ou)=n bou/lesqe, e)/cestin u(mi=n h(ma=s labei=n cumma/xous</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 5.4.6" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 5.4.6</bibl></cit>; <gloss>If you wish, you can take us as allies</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present Contrafactual Conditions:</hi> The imperfect indicative stands in the protasis of present contrafactual conditions. The imperfect indicative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2302" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2302-2312</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) ga\r e)kh/dou, h(=kes a)\n fe/rwn plh/rh to\n misqo\n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 7.5.5" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 7.5.5</bibl></cit>; <gloss>If you were troubled, you would have come with full pay</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present General Conditions:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">e)a/n</foreign> stands in the protasis of present general conditions. The present indicative stands in the apodosis <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2337" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2337-2339</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)dikou=nta, h)\n la/bh|s, kola/zeis;</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 3.1.11" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 3.1.11</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Do you punish a wrong-doer if you catch him?</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Simple Conditions:</hi> The imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect indicative stands in the protasis and apodosis of past simple conditions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2298" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2298-2301</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei)/ te/ ti a)/llo . . . e)ge/neto e)piki/ndunon toi=s *(/ellhsi, pa/ntwn . . . mete/sxomen</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 3.54" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 3.54</bibl></cit>; <gloss>and if any other danger befell the Greeks, we took our share in all</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past Contrafactual Conditions:</hi> The aorist or imperfect indicative stands in the protasis of past contrafactual conditions. The aorist or imperfect indicative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2302" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2302-2312</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ou)k a)\n e)poi/hsen *)agasi/as tau=ta, ei) mh\ e)gw\ au)to\n e)ke/leusa</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 6.6.15" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 6.6.15</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Agasias would not have done this, if I had not commanded him</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past General Conditions:</hi> The optative with <foreign lang="greek">ei)</foreign> stands in the protasis of past general conditions. The imperfect indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2340" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2340-2341</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) de/ tis kai\ a)ntei/poi, eu)qu\s . . . e)teqnh/kei</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 8.66" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 8.66</bibl></cit>; <gloss>but if any one even made an objection, he was promptly put to death</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Future More Vivid Conditions:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">e)a/n</foreign> stands in the protasis of future more vivid conditions. The future indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2323" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2323-2327</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ti/ e)/stai toi=s stratiw/tais, e)a\n au)tw=| tau=ta xari/swntai</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 2.1.10" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.1.10</bibl></cit>; <gloss>What will the soldiers have, if they oblige him in this?</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Future Most Vivid Conditions:</hi> The future indicative stands in the protasis and apodosis of future most vivid conditions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2328" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2328</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)poktenei=s ga/r, ei)/ me gh=s e)/cw balei=s</quote> <bibl n="Eur. Phoen. 1621" default="NO" valid="yes">Eur. Phoen. 1621</bibl></cit>; <gloss>for you will slay me if you cast me out of the land</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.4.subj" type="form" n="subj" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Subjunctive</head>
<p>The meaning of the subjunctive mood varies according to its context.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Hortatory:</hi> The subjunctive without <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> is used in exhortations. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign> <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1797" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1797-1799</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/ge skopw=men</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 5.5.15" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 5.5.15</bibl></cit>; <gloss>come let us consider</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Prohibitive:</hi> The second or third person aorist subjunctive without <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> is used in prohibitions. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1800" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1800</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">mhde\n a)qumh/shte</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 5.4.19" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 5.4.19</bibl></cit>; <gloss>do not lose heart</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Deliberative:</hi> The first person subjunctive is used when a speaker questions what she or he should do. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1805" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1805-1808</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ti/ dra/sw; poi= fu/gw;</quote> <bibl n="Eur. Med. 1271" default="NO" valid="yes">Eur. Med. 1271</bibl></cit>; <gloss>what am I to do? whither shall I fly?</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Hesitating Assertion:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign> can express a doubtful assertion. With <foreign lang="greek">mh/ ou)</foreign> it expresses a doubtful denial. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1801" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1801-1804</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">mh\ a)groiko/teron h)=| to\ a)lhqe\s ei)pei=n</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Gorg. 462e" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Gorg. 462e</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I suspect it's too rude to tell the truth</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Purpose or Final Clauses:</hi> The subjunctive can be used in purpose clauses following verbs in primary sequence. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2193" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2193-2196</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">kata/mene i(/na kai\ peri\ sou= bouleusw/meqa</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 6.6.28" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 6.6.28</bibl></cit>; <gloss>remain behind that we may consider your case also</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Object Clauses of Effort:</hi> The subjunctive can occasionally be used in object clauses introduced by <foreign lang="greek">o(/pws</foreign> or <foreign lang="greek">o(/pws mh/</foreign> following verbs that signify effort. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2214" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2214</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/prassen . . . o(/pws po/lemos ge/nhtai</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 1.57" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 1.57</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he tried to bring it about that war should be occasioned</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Fear Clauses:</hi> The subjunctive is used in object clauses introduced by <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign> following verbs in primary sequence that signify fear. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2225" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2225-2232</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">de/doika mh\ . . . e)pilaqw/meqa th=s oi)/kade o(dou=</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 3.2.25" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 3.2.25</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I am afraid lest we may forget the way home</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Temporal Clauses:</hi> The subjunctive is used with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> in temporal clauses referring to the future, corresponding in sense to the future more vivid condition. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2401" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2401-2403</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)peida\n a(/pant' a)kou/shte, kri/nate</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 4.14" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 4.14</bibl></cit>; <gloss>when you have heard everything, decide</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Present General Conditions:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">e)a/n</foreign> stands in the protasis of present general conditions. The present indicative stands in the apodosis <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2297" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2297</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)dikou=nta, h)\n la/bh|s, kola/zeis;</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 3.1.11" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 3.1.11</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Do you punish a wrong-doer if you catch him?</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Future More Vivid Conditions:</hi> The subjunctive with <foreign lang="greek">e)a/n</foreign> stands in the protasis of future more vivid conditions. The future indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2323" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2323-2327</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ti/ e)/stai toi=s stratiw/tais, e)a\n au)tw=| tau=ta xari/swntai</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 2.1.10" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.1.10</bibl></cit>; <gloss>What will the soldiers have, if they oblige him in this?</gloss></p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.4.opt" type="form" n="opt" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Optative</head>
<p>The meaning of the optative mood varies according to its context.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Optative of Wish:</hi> The optative without <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> can be used to express a wish. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1814" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1814-1819</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">w)= pai=, ge/noio patro\s eu)tuxe/steros</quote> <bibl n="Soph. Aj. 550" default="NO" valid="yes">Soph. Aj. 550</bibl></cit>; <gloss>ah, boy, mayest thou prove more fortunate than thy sire</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Potential Optative:</hi> The optative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> can be used to express a future possibility. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1824" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1824-1834</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">gnoi/hs d' a)\n o(/ti tou=q' ou(/tws e)/xei</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 1.6.21" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 1.6.21</bibl></cit>; <gloss>you may see that this is so</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Imperative Optative:</hi> The optative without <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> can be used to express an imperative command. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1820" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1820</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">*xeiri/sofos h(goi=to</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 3.2.37" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 3.2.37</bibl></cit>; <gloss>let Chirisophus lead</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Purpose or Final Clauses:</hi> The optative can be used in purpose clauses following verbs in secondary sequence. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2193" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2193-2196</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">kai\ a(/ma tau=t' ei)pw\n a)ne/sth w(s mh\ me/lloito a)lla\ perai/noito ta\ de/onta</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 3.1.47" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 3.1.47</bibl></cit>; <gloss>and with these words on his lips he stood up in order that what was needful might not be delayed but be done at once</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Object Clauses of Effort:</hi> The optative with <foreign lang="greek">o(/pws</foreign> is sometimes used following a verb of effort in place of the future indicative. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2211" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2211-2212</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)peme/leto o(/pws mh/te a)/sitoi mh/te a)/potoi/ pote e)/sointo</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 8.1.43" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 8.1.43</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he took care that they should never be without food or drink</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Fear Clauses:</hi> The optative is used in object clauses introduced by <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign> following secondary verbs that signify fear. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2225" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2225-2232</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/deisan oi( (/ *ellhnes mh\ prosa/goien pro\s to\ ke/ras kai\ . . . au)tou\s katako/yeian</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.10.9" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.10.9</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the Greeks were seized with fear lest they might advance against their flank and cut them down</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Causal Clauses:</hi> Causal clauses expressing a reported cause take the optative after a secondary tense. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2240" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2240-2242</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">（oi( *)aqhnai=oi） to\n *perikle/a e)ka/kizon o(/ti strathgo\s w)\n ou)k e)peca/goi</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 2.21" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 2.21</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the Athenians reviled Pericles on the ground that, though he was general, he did not lead them out</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Temporal Clauses:</hi> The optative is used without <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> in temporal clauses referring to the future, corresponding in sense to the future less vivid condition. The negative is <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2404" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2404-2408</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">de/oito/ g' a)\n au)tou= me/nein, e(/ws a)pe/lqois</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 5.3.13" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 5.3.13</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he would beg him to remain until you should depart</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Indirect Discourse:</hi> The optative can be used in indirect discourse introduced by <foreign lang="greek">o(/ti</foreign> or <foreign lang="greek">w(s</foreign> following a verb in secondary sequence. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2614" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2614-2615</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/gnwsan o(/ti keno\s o( fo/bos ei)/h</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 2.2.21" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.2.21</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they recognized that their fear was groundless</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Past General Conditions:</hi> The optative with <foreign lang="greek">ei)</foreign> stands in the protasis of past general conditions. The imperfect indicative stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2340" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2340-2341</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">ei) de/ tis kai\ a)ntei/poi, eu)qu\s . . . e)teqnh/kei</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 8.66" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 8.66</bibl></cit>; <gloss>but if any one even made an objection, he was promptly put to death</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Future Less Vivid Conditions:</hi> The optative with <foreign lang="greek">ei)</foreign> stands in the protasis of future less vivid conditions. The optative with <foreign lang="greek">a)/n</foreign> stands in the apodosis. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2329" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2329-2334</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">deina\ a)\n ei)/hn ei)rgasme/nos, . . . ei) li/poimi th\n ta/cin</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Apol. 28d" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Apol. 28d</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I should be in the state of having committed a dreadful deed, if I were to desert my post</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.4.imperat" type="form" n="imperat" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Imperative</head>
<p>The imperative mood is used to express commands and prohibitions.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Commands:</hi> The imperative is used to express commands. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1836" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1836-1839</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/ge dh\ a)kou/sate</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Apol. 14" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Apol. 14</bibl></cit>; <gloss>come listen</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Prohibitions:</hi> The imperative with <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign> is used to express prohibitions. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1840" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1840-1844</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">mh\ mainw/meqa mhd' ai)sxrw=s a)polw/meqa</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 7.1.29" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 7.1.29</bibl></cit>; <gloss>let us not act like madmen nor perish disgracefully</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.4.infin" type="form" n="infin" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Infinitive</head>
<p>The infinitive is a verbal noun. It is verbal in that it is formed from a verbal stem, modified by adverbs, and admits the constructions of a finite verb. It is a noun in that it can be the subject or object of a verb, and can exhibit case syntax.
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Subject:</hi> The infinitive can serve as the subject of a verb, particularly impersonal verbs such as <foreign lang="greek">dei=</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1984" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1984-1988</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">sumfe/rei au)toi=s fi/lous ei)=nai</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Ec. 11.23" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Ec. 11.23</bibl></cit>; <gloss>it is for their interest to be friends</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Object:</hi> The infinitive can serve as the object of verbs that imply a supplementary action. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 1989" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 1989-1990</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">pai/deusis kalh\ dida/skei xrh=sqai no/mois</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Hunt. 12.14" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Hunt. 12.14</bibl></cit>; <gloss>a good education teaches obedience to the laws</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Complementary:</hi> The infinitive can complement adjectives, adverbs, and substantives that imply ability or suitability. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2000" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2000-2007</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">deino\s le/gein, kako\s biw=nai</quote> <bibl n="Aeschin. 3.174" default="NO" valid="yes">Aeschin. 3.174</bibl></cit>; <gloss>skilled in speaking, evil in life</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Purpose:</hi> The infinitive can express purpose, particularly after verbs implying choosing or giving. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2008" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2008-2011</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">pare/xw e)mauto\n e)rwta=n</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Apol. 33b" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Apol. 33b</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I offer myself to be questioned</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Consecutive/Result Clauses:</hi> A result clause introduced by <foreign lang="greek">w(/ste</foreign> expressing the idea that something was intended to or could occur as a natural result of an action is expressed by the infinitive. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2258" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2258-2272</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/xw trih/\reis w(/ste e(lei=n to\ e)kei/nwn ploi=on</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.4.8" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.4.8</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I have triremes (so as) to catch their vessel</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Absolute:</hi> The infinitive can be used absolutely in parenthetical phrases. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2012" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2012</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)lhqe/s ge w(s e)/pos ei)pei=n ou)de\n ei)rh/kasin</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Apol. 17a" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Apol. 17a</bibl></cit> <gloss>not one word of truth, I may say, did they utter</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Imperative:</hi> The infinitive can be used to express a command. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2013" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2013</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)kou/ete lew/|: kata\ ta\ pa/tria tou\s xo/as pi/nein</quote> <bibl n="Aristoph. Ach. 1000" default="NO" valid="yes">Aristoph. Ach. 1000</bibl></cit>; <gloss>hear ye, good people! drink the Pitchers as our sires drank!</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Exclamatory:</hi> The infinitive can be used absolutely in exclamations. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2015" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2015</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)me\ paqei=n ta/de</quote> <bibl n="Aesch. Eum. 837" default="NO" valid="yes">Aesch. Eum. 837</bibl></cit>; <gloss>that I should suffer this!</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Wishes:</hi> The infinitive can be used in place of an optative of wish. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2014" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2014</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">w)= *zeu=, e)kgene/sqai moi *)aqhnai/ous tei/sasqai</quote> <bibl n="Hdt. 5.105" default="NO" valid="yes">Hdt. 5.105</bibl></cit>; <gloss>oh Zeus, that it be granted to me to punish the Athenians!</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Indirect Discourse:</hi> The infinitive can be used in to represent a finite verb in indirect discourse after verbs expressing the idea of saying, believing, and thinking. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2616" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2616-2024</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)/fh h)\ a)/cein *lakedaimoni/ous h)\ au)tou= a)poktenei=n</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 4.28" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 4.28</bibl></cit>; <gloss>he said that he would either bring the Lacedaemonians or kill them on the spot</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Articular Infinitive:</hi> The infinitive can be used with the article as if it were a noun. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2025" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2025-2037</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)ni/h kai\ to\ fula/ssein</quote> <bibl n="Hom. Od. 20.52" default="NO" valid="yes">Hom. Od. 20.52</bibl></cit>; <gloss>to watch is also trouble</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2>
<div2 id="og.4.part" type="form" n="part" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Participle</head>
<p>Participles are verbal adjectives. Participles are like adjectives in that:
<list type="simple"><item>1. they have both case and number,</item>
<item>2. they can modify other nouns and pronouns.</item></list></p>
<p>Participles are like verbs in that:
<list type="simple"><item>1. they are formed from verb stems,</item>
<item>2. they have both voice and tense (although tense only signifies aspect),</item>
<item>3. they can take both an object and an indirect object,</item>
<item>4. they are modified by adverbs.</item></list>
<list type="simple">
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Attributive:</hi> A participle with an article in the attributive position functions as an adjective. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2049" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2049-2053</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">o( e)festhkw\s ki/ndunos th=| po/lei</quote> <bibl n="Dem. 18.176" default="NO" valid="yes">Dem. 18.176</bibl></cit>; <gloss>the danger impending over the State</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial:</hi> A participle not in the attributive position can describe an accompanying circumstance relating to the action of the sentence. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2054" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2054-2057</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">oi a)/nqrwpoi lipo/ntes th\n o(do\n feu/gontes o)li/goi a)pe/qnh|skon</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 4.2.7" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 4.2.7</bibl></cit>; <gloss>by leaving the road and making off only a few were killed</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Temporal:</hi> A circumstantial participle can denote a temporal relationship. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2061" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2061</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)kou/sasi toi=s strathgoi=s tau=ta e)/doce to\ stra/teuma sunagagei=n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 4.4.19" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 4.4.19</bibl></cit>; <gloss>on hearing this it seemed best to the generals to collect the troops</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Manner:</hi> A circumstantial participle can denote the manner of an action. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2062" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2062</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">parh/launon tetagme/noi</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 1.2.16" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 1.2.16</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they marched past in order</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Means:</hi> A circumstantial participle can denote the means of an action. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2063" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2063</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">lh|zo/menoi cw=si</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Cyrop. 3.2.25" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Cyrop. 3.2.25</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they live by pillaging</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Cause:</hi> A circumstantial participle can denote the cause of an action. A causal participle accompanied by the particles <foreign lang="greek">a(/te, oi(=a</foreign> or <foreign lang="greek">oi(=on</foreign> expresses the authority of the author. A causal participle accompanied by the particle <foreign lang="greek">w(s</foreign> expresses the authority of the subject of the sentence. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2064" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2064</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">oi( ga\r *ko/lxoi, a(/te e)kpeptwko/tes tw=n oi)kiw=n, polloi\ h)=san a(qro/oi</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 5.2.1" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 5.2.1</bibl></cit>; <gloss>for the Colchians, since they had been driven out of their houses, were now gathered together in one great body</gloss></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">e)qanatw/qh u(po\ tw=n e)n *spa/rth| telw=n w(s a)peiqw=n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 2.6.4" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 2.6.4</bibl></cit>; <gloss>As a result he was condemned to death by the authorities at Sparta on the ground of disobedience</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Purpose:</hi> The future participle accompanied by <foreign lang="greek">w(s</foreign> can denote the purpose of an action. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2065" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2065</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">prope/myantes kh/ruka po/lemon proerou=nta</quote> <bibl n="Thuc. 1.29" default="NO" valid="yes">Thuc. 1.29</bibl></cit>; <gloss>having sent a herald in advance to proclaim war</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Concession:</hi> A circumstantial participle can have concessive force. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2066" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2066</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">polloi\ ga\r o)/ntes eu)genei=s ei)sin kakoi/</quote> <bibl n="Eur. El. 551" default="NO" valid="yes">Eur. El. 551</bibl></cit>; <gloss>for many, albeit noble by birth, are ignoble</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Circumstantial - Condition:</hi> A circumstantial participle can have conditional force. The negative of circumstantial participles is <foreign lang="greek">mh/</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2067" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2067</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">su\ de\ klu/wn ei)/sei ta/xa</quote> <bibl n="Aristoph. Birds 1390" default="NO" valid="yes">Aristoph. Birds 1390</bibl></cit>; <gloss>but if you listen you shall soon know</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Genitive Absolute:</hi> A circumstantial participle in the genitive agreeing with a noun or a pronoun that is not related to the construction of the main sentence is a genitive absolute. A genitive absolute can express the same relationships as other circumstantial participles. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2070" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2070-2075</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">tou=to de\ le/gontos au)tou= pta/rnutai/ tis</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 3.2.9" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 3.2.9</bibl></cit>; <gloss>As he was saying this, someone sneezed</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Accusative Absolute:</hi> A circumstantial participle of an impersonal verb in the accusative agreeing with a noun or a pronoun not related to the construction of the main sentence is an accusative absolute. An accusative absolute can express the same relationships as other circumstantial participles. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2076" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2076-2078</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">do/can de\ tau=ta e)kh/rucan ou(/tw poiei=n</quote> <bibl n="Xen. Anab. 4.1.13" default="NO" valid="yes">Xen. Anab. 4.1.13</bibl></cit>; <gloss>Having decided this, they proclaimed that they should do so</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">Supplementary Participle:</hi> The supplementary participle completes the meaning of verbs that denote beginning and ceasing and the verbs <foreign lang="greek">lanya/nw, fya/nw</foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">tugxa/nw</foreign>. <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2088" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2088-2105</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">a)/rista tugxa/nousi pra/cantes</quote> <bibl n="Isoc. 4.103" default="NO" valid="yes">Isoc. 4.103</bibl></cit>; <gloss>they happen to have fared the best</gloss>
</p></item>
<item><p><hi rend="bold">In Indirect Discourse:</hi> The participle can be used to represent a finite verb in indirect discourse after verbs expressing the idea of knowing, learning, remembering, or showing (<foreign lang="greek">oi)=da, gignw/skw, e)pi/stamai, e)nnow=, manqa/nw, (ou)k) a)gnow=, me/mnhmai, e)pilanqa/nomai, dhlw=, (e)pi)dei/knumi, fai/nw, a)pofai/nw, fai/nomai, e)/oika, (e)c)e)le/gxw, o(mologw=, a)gge/llw, </foreign> and <foreign lang="greek">poiw=</foreign>). <bibl n="Smyth grammar 2106" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth 2106-2115</bibl></p>
<p><cit><quote lang="greek">me/mnhmai *kriti/a| tw=|de cuno/nta se</quote> <bibl n="Plat. Charm. 156a" default="NO" valid="yes">Plat. Charm. 156a</bibl></cit>; <gloss>I remember that you were in company with Critias here</gloss>
</p></item>
</list>
</p></div2></div1>
<div1 id="og.sources" type="chapter" n="sources" org="uniform" sample="complete">
<head>Sources Cited</head>
<listBibl default="NO">
<bibl default="NO">Bevier, L. <title>Brief Greek Syntax.</title> New York: 1903.</bibl>
<bibl default="NO">Hansen, H. and G. Quinn. <title>Greek: An Intensive Course.</title> New York: Fordham University Press, 1992.</bibl>
<bibl n="KG" default="NO" valid="yes">Kühner, R. and B. Gerth. <title lang="de">Ausführliche Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache.</title> Hannover: 1898.</bibl>
<bibl default="NO">Mastronarde, D. <title>Introduction to Attic Greek</title>. Berkeley: 1993.</bibl>
<bibl n="Smyth grammar" default="NO" valid="yes">Smyth, H. <title>Greek Grammar.</title> Cambridge: 1920.</bibl>
</listBibl></div1>
</body>
</text>
</TEI.2>
|